Gender Perspective in Post Conflict Rehabilitation

Conflict is inevitable in our interaction with fellow humans. The ECOWAS Conflict Prevention Framework (2013) sees conflict as a contradiction in power relations among individuals and/or groups in relations to one another and with nature in their pursuit for limited resources or opportunities. There is a phase known as the pre-conflict phase where there are no conflicts at all but preventive diplomacy is
needed based on early signs and early warnings to prevent the occurrences of such conflict(s). 

There is the conflict phase that requires either peacemaking (through conciliation, mediation, negotiation, or Arbitration) or peace keeping through the use of the military personnel, civilian workers and humanitarian workers to maintain a cease fire agreement between combatants in a war or conflict and bring warring parties to a negotiated agreement. There is also the phase known as Violent conflict phase where peace enforcement is necessitated to stop the violence as encapsulated in Article VII of the United Nations Charter while there is also the phase known as the post conflict peace building phase after the war have ended and actions are taken to prevent the lapse or relapse into conflict. 

Such actions includes disarmament, demobilization, rehabilitation and reconstruction, religious model focused on reconciliation and forgiveness, Liberalism models focused on the issue of human rights and freedom, Tribunals for trying those guilty of war crimes, truth commissions for investigating minor cases, reparations, and peace building. Many governments, the United Nations and donor agencies have emphasized women’s participation and efforts to achieve gender equality as crucial elements of post-conflict reconstruction. In 2000 the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 1325 on ‘Women, peace and security, highlighting the interdependence of post conflict gender equality, peace building and security. 

Women are acknowledged as playing important roles in peace building and in sustaining security on a communal level. Gender inequality is understood to inhibit development and violence against women to be a pervasive form of insecurity with widespread ill-effects across societies. There is also growing awareness of the need to address the particular experiences of men and boys, both as victims and as sources of insecurity. In post-conflict settings, the incidence of violence against women and children is often higher than preceding the conflict. 

The United Nation’s group of independent experts on the impact of armed conflict on women observed that during armed conflict, ‘violence against women comes to be an accepted norm. Sexual and domestic violence continues and increases in the post-conflict period, fuelled by the availability of weapons, trauma among male family members, and lack of jobs, shelter and basic services. Lack of livelihood opportunities and the post-conflict influx of mostly male international personnel make women and girls particularly vulnerable to sexual exploitation and to being trafficked. This work however focuses on the gender perspective of the post conflict rehabilitation.

MEANING OF CONFLICT

Conflict by definition, is an intrinsic and inevitable part of Human existence. However, violent conflict is not is not inevitable and as such is an anomaly. Francis (2014) defined conflict as the pursuit of incompatible interests and goals by different groups. Armed conflict is the resort to the use of force and armed violence in the pursuit of incompatible and particular interests and goals. The ECOWAS Conflict Prevention Framework (ECPF) defines conflict as contradiction in power relations and which manifest themselves in individual and group interactions with one another and with nature in the pursuit of limited resources or opportunities Conflict is good only if it is able to achieve meaningful development. 

Example of such conflict is the Federal Government of Nigeria and ASUU disagreement (2013) that led to months of strikes and shut down of educational activities and which in the end; the federal government had to just respond to some of the needs of ASUU. However, conflict is bad when it results in to violence, terrorism, reprisal attacks, armed conflict, genocide, ethnic cleansing or even war. Examples of conflict includes the Israeli and Palestinian war, The American and Iraq war, the Iran and Saudi Arabia conflict, the Rwandan genocide, the Burundi crises and in Nigeria, the Maitatsine crises of 1980, the Kafanchan crises of 2000, the Saganmu crises of 1999, the Ife/Modakeke crises, the 2011 post election violence in some parts of Northern Nigeria etc. The most disturbing issue around the world is the issue of global immigration and the spread of religious extremists in the Middle East, Europe and Africa. 

More terrorist groups are springing up from the various Islamic fundamental sects such as the Hezbollah, Hamas, Al-Qaeda, ISIS, ISIL, Al-Shabaab, Boko Haram ,  and so on. Religious violence becomes even more apocalyptic when it is carried along with ethnicity. After the 9/11 attacks on the twin tower buildings in New York city, the American government declared war on terror which they have actually been carrying out yet these violent attacks continue to increase especially on government formations, public installations and on innocent civilians. Examples of conflicts in Africa includes Ethnic conflicts, class conflicts, religious conflicts, citizenship conflicts, environmental conflicts, inter and intra-communal conflicts.

ISSUES OF POST CONFLICT PEACE BUILDING

We can only talk of peace building after a war has ended, cease fire have been maintained, peace agreements have been reached from both belligerent parties. The process of post conflict peace building requires the use of DDRR (Disarmament, Demobilization, Rehabilitation and Reintegration). DDRR refers to the process of demilitarizing official and unofficial armed groups by (1) controlling and reducing the possession and use of arms (2) Disbanding non-state armed groups (3) Rightsizing state security services and (4) by assisting former combatants to reintegrate into civilian life. They are better explained below:

Disarmament

Disarmament is the collection, documentation, control and disposal of small arms, ammunition, explosives, light and heavy weapons of combatants and often also of civilian population. It also includes the development of responsible arms management programs.

Demobilization

It is the formal and controlled discharge of active combatants from armed forces or other armed groups. The first stage of demobilization may extend from the processing of individual combatant in temporary centers to the massing of troops in camps designated for this purpose (cantonment sites, encampments, assembly areas or barracks).

Rehabilitation

This is a form of transitional assistance to help cover the basic needs of ex-combatants and their families and can include transitional safety allowances, food, clothes, shelter, medical services, short term education, training, employment and tools. It is a short term material and/or financial assistance to meet immediate needs and can last up to one year.

Reintegration

This is the process by which ex-combatants acquire civilian status and gain sustainable employment and income. It is a long term, continuous social and economic process of development. Reintegration is essentially a social and economic process with an open time frame, primarily taking place in communities at the local level..

The truth is that DDRR alone cannot produce development or guarantee a long term achievement of peace. DDRR is only a part of the peace process of consolidating peace and promoting stability. DDRR can be built on National leadership and responsibility. DDRR needs funding system, monitoring and evaluation, quantitative and qualitative  output and security impact. DDRR can create and environment in which the overall peace process, political and social reconciliation, social and economic rehabilitation, and longer term development can take root. Others are DDRR can:

·         
Provide the mechanism to separate combatants from at least some of their weapons (arms reduction and control rather than total disarmament) and to begin to break up command structures.

·       
  Provide Rebel groups with a way of laying down arms without being seen as having surrendered.

·         Begin to build trust and confidence among and between former combatants and non-combatants that enables other elements of the peace process such as election, security sector/ system reform (SSR), reconciliation and economic recovery to go forward.

·         
Provide ex-combatants an opportunity to begin to reintegrate into civilian life and a much needed transition period.

·       
  Provide a short term safety net for ex-combatants and their dependants.

·         Start the process of changing the habits and identities of ex-combatants.

REHABILITATION OF MEN AND WOMEN IN POST CONFLICT ERA

The final stage of conflict is the post-conflict stage. Conflict managers target their efforts in post conflict reconstruction and also in ensuring that the structural causes have been taken care of so that violence does not flare up again. Women are affected differently in situations of violent conflicts and consequently have different needs in post conflict reconstruction. Decisions on priority areas for post conflict reconstruction that do not specifically and deliberately target women unfortunately produce a lot of gaps in the process of reconstruction (Mutunga, 2014). Women in Africa are not yet in the mainstream in the political, social, economic, as well as peace and conflict related issues. A strong case is therefore made for gender equity on the continent, especially in the peace and conflict resolution sector. This is because the vast majority of those affected by armed conflict group, including refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs), are women and children. Besides, women represent more than half of the world’s population. Factoring in women’s talents and insights would lead to responses to peace and conflict resolution issues that are more people centered and therefore more sustainable. The Norwegian Institute of International Affairs (2001) has this to say:

“Any peace process that ignores the needs and roles of women is unnatural, and therefore inherently unstable. During post-conflict transitions, the empowerment of women is crucial to re-lunching social and economic development. Women, like men, are victims and actors in wars and armed conflicts but usually in different ways and different fields. During wars, women participate in new activities and assume new roles, often taking on more responsibilities. Despite these changes, women are often marginalized in post conflict peace building, both in the societies emerging from conflict, and in the formulations and implementation of peace building strategies by international peace operatives”.

In almost all societies, least of all African countries, the female gender is usually referred to as the other gender or the weaker gender. On the basis of this classification, women have been given the crumbs from the masters’ tables. Who are these masters? These masters are the men, who have appropriated the position of leadership of the society. Physical security in post conflict societies is a critical issue for women. Women are especially vulnerable to low-level violence during the early stages of post conflict transition. Fear of violence and sexual abuse traps women in their homes and prevents them from engaging in important economic activities. This stress exacerbates the trauma experienced by women during the conflict. Women  have continued to be the most hit in situations of violent conflict and are also affected differently from men in violent conflicts. It is becoming increasingly accepted that women have unique opportunities  for conflict resolution due to unique role they play in society.

Unfortunately, the use of women in conflict management and resolution has been limited to inter and intra-family and clan disputes. In 2000, a United Nations Security Council Resolution was passed recognizing the need for the full participation of women in peace processes. The United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 further asserts that the full participation of women in peace processes can significantly contribute to maintenance and promotion of international peace and security. According to former UN secretary General, Kofi Anan, women have served as peace educators for years in family situations and in the society have proved to be instrumental in building bridges rather than walls. He further asserts that women have been crucial in preserving social orders when communities have collapsed. The role of women has remained at the local inter and intra-clan disputes and family disputes.

Trauma counseling is clearly a need for both gender (men and women) and even children. For the men, the kind of counseling could involve that of too much exposure to death and participation in the killings. For women, the counseling could involve countering effects of rape and sometimes gang rape, witnessing deaths of family members such as children; those that have undergone abduction may require counseling to heal wounds related to this; fear of soldiers and guns, etc (Mutunga, 2014).

After the conflict, most of the infrastructures must have been destroyed and people now struggle for access to supplies. Poor access to water for instance, hurts women more than it does men as they are the ones with the responsibility to feed their families. Generally, restoring public services greatly lessen the burden on women, which is rarely the priority and often times, governments are forced into structural adjustment programmes, which effectively lower the government’s ability to provide basic services (Mutunga, 2014).

Employment provides another avenue for gender sensitive post conflict rehabilitation. After violent conflicts, women and men find their way to seek employment particularly after the effect of the conflict have lead to permanent disabilities, scars or injuries through maiming and bodily harms. The government and NGOs should help them develop small scale business by providing soft loans, training them on skill acquisitions and helping the disabled ones where necessary so as to empower them too. The UN former Secretary General has this to say:

“In war-torn societies, women often keep societies going. They maintain the social fabric. They replace destroyed social services and tend to the sick and wounded. As a result, women are the prime advocates of peace”

– Former UN Secretary General, Kofi Annan

CONCLUSION

Post conflict peace building especially as regards the rehabilitation of men and women can not only be done alone by the government because the government of a post conflict nation will be over whelmed with the structural adjustment programs of recovering the nation economically, politically, socially, restoring law and order all to ensure development. The rehabilitation effort of government must then be supported by Civil society Organizations, donor Agencies and countries, international and local bodies. Such rehabilitation includes trying to provide for the basic needs of the men, women and even children such as clothing, food, water, shelter. It also involves providing employment for them where necessary, embarking on massive skill acquisition programs, providing soft loans for small business, encouraging the people towards savings culture and investing heavily in education. Despite some success stories, collective rehabilitation in Africa is still at a rudimentary level with generally lacking institutional frameworks and structures which is pointer to the fact that more needs to be done in terms of post conflict rehabilitation.

REFERENCES

1.    Francis, J. (2014) Conceptualizing Peace. In Introduction to peace and conflict studies in west Africa. S. G. Best. Ed. (2014). Ibadan: Spectrum Books Ltd.

2.    Norwegian Institute of International Affairs (2001) Gendering Human Security: From Marginalization to the Integration of Women in Peace Building.

3.    Mutunga, E. (2014) Gender and Peace Processes in Africa. In Introduction to peace and conflict studies in west Africa. S. G. Best. Ed. (2014). Ibadan: Spectrum Books Ltd.

4.    Bastick, M (2008) Integrating Gender in Post-Conflict Security Sector Reform. Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF). Policy Paper No. 9. Accessed on 19^th January, 2016 from http://www.dcaf.ch/content/download/35609/526435/file/pp29.pdf.

5.    Greenberg, M. E & Zuckerman, E (2009) The Gender Dimensions of Post- Conflict Reconstruction: The Challenges in Development Aid. United Nations University Wider. Accessed on 19^th January, 2016 from http://www.genderaction.org/images/GenderDimensionsPCR_2009.pdf.  

6.    United Nations Development Program (2001) Gender Approaches in Conflict and Post-Conflict Situations. Accessed on 19^th January, 2016 from http://www.undp.org/content/dam/aplaws/publication/en/publications/womens-empowerment/gender-approaches-in-conflict-and-post-conflict-situations-/gendermanualfinalBCPR.pdf.